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Las Vegas Casino Slots 777 Magnet Slot Machine Gaming

Las Vegas Casino Slots 777 Magnet Slot Machine Gaming

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The circumstances indicate who can receive the gift. Limitations on amount and video games. Restrictions can be imposed on the withdrawal , on the replenishment of the deposit or the use of the slots and other video games. When you register, there is space to insert a promo or redeem code.

777 additionally has a loyalty scheme beneath which gamers can win loyalty points which may later be converted into actual cash. The welcome package deal of as much as £200 as well as the alternative free play provide of as much as £1,500 is more than enough for this on line casino to earn an extra level. Compared to most different operators, 777 is above common when it comes to bonuses. Read extra in regards to the available rewards in my detailed assessment of the bonuses and perks.

There are two attainable situations when no deposit bonuses are provided to gamers. Most regularly, such bonuses are linked to new clients as soon as they full the registration process in a selected on-line on line casino. However, there are conditions when they are offered for other causes. Therefore, it’s fairly attainable to get a no deposit bonus not solely if you’re new there. Casumo slots – fulfill any taste! It’s one of the few portals the place yow will discover such a numerous casino games, play slots on-line win real cash. If you wish to play real cash casino games at 777, you’ll have to check in and open a real money account.

Usually, you can rise up to eighty spins. This is considered as the most effective deal offered. As the name implies, spins are the bonus rotations that you can apply to gamble sure video games. The gambling establishment offers you with a number of extras which might be normally intended for the recently launched on line casino slot machines or for the most well-liked titles.

One of the things that we significantly like about Hot 777 Deluxe, is the way in which that the participant’s controls merge completely with the game’s sharp-shooting theme. So the windows for placing your bets and figuring out the remaining steadiness are configured to resemble bullets. The Spin button, in the meantime, has been designed to resemble the firing mechanism of a revolver, so it feels as though you’re actually capturing at symbols when you play. The reels themselves are depicted as planks of old wood, on which the symbols scroll down.

For details about our privateness practices, please visit our web site. This provider operates under a distant gambling licence from the UK Gambling Commission. The security and equity of the game are assured by impartial companies and government authorities. Multihand Blackjack can be played with numerous arms for extra excitement. It features RSA Encryption, which ensures that each one your sensitive knowledge might be not out there to 3rd events. Furthermore, the web site is spy ware-free, doesn’t have any adware or malware. The renowned McAfee is utilised for this purpose.

I am rewarded by Pepper based on how helpful and interesting other members find my posts. But I’m not paid by merchants, I’m not paid by manufacturers, and I do not earn money based mostly on whether you purchase a product, ever. To get to the best experience of the Vulkan Vegas cellular on line casino, simply ensure that the browser you might be using is updated to the newest version. The desktop view of the location seems unbelievable, and any user, seeing it for the first time, may have no issues navigating through. Our internet growth staff is focused on a person-pleasant design for snug and easy access. All the location elements such as menus and icons are organized completely for fast entry in a click on of your mouse.

And of course, you’ll be able to set off extra spins by hitting wild symbols. There is a Da Vinci Code, and this can be a Da Vinci Diamonds. The design is purely awesome, but this is undoubtedly not the one factor that pulls gamers. You get to play on twenty paylines with five reels, with plenty of bonus things popping whilst you play.

With greater than four hundred slots to select from, you realize that you are in for a special deal with every time that you just go to here. You can go through several slots a day and not encounter the identical one twice for fairly a while.

This is the typical online on line casino accessible from your computer browser. In the lobby, we provide the vast majority of video games in Flash-Play version so that you can start having enjoyable right away. You don’t have to download any software on your pc.

The pictures may be hearts, diamonds, bells, letters, numerals and fruits. In case of the themed slots, then the symbols are primarily based on the chosen theme. The free slot Slot machines can also be accessed by everybody.

So the player who doesn’t have flash can play it. For most of our avid gamers, that is the most entertaining part of our website since it brings out the actual on line casino setting to your home.

Firefox and chrome are popular browsers and the one thing the participant needs is to replace them. Schools and schools in Wales may even stay closed till no less than January 18 and transfer to online learning.

With the fundamentals all set up, faucet the spin button to start out spinning the reels and start taking part in. The vendor hasn’t specified a postage method to Turkey. Contact the seller- opens in a brand new window or tab and request post to your location. It can also be comforting to notice that this on line casino uses the newest 128-bit SLL encryption expertise when it comes to processing any financial transaction. This means you could relaxation assured that all of your personal and monetary data stays private. Not every website affords this level of safety, so it is one thing worth making note of.

But if the web site presents solely the software suitable with computer systems and you’ll’t play out of your cell gadget, you must use a PC to claim the reward. The SuperSpins are among the latest entrants to the world of on line casino freebies and they’re anticipated to shake up the free casino slots.

Our single greatest piece of recommendation to anyone hoping to win at Hot 777 Deluxe, is to play the sport as a lot as potential in free play mode. That means you’ll acquire a radical understanding of how the game works, which provides you a sound basis on which to create your wagering strategy. When you obtain a recreation with a free bonus attached, the bonus may be claimed solely as soon as. There will be no bonuses for subsequent downloads of the same sport by you.

It may be very easy to flick through different sport alternatives and the website, normally, could be very consumer-pleasant. The loading instances could also be a bit longer at occasions, but essentially that is determined by your internet connection. The website is out there in three languages – English, German and Swedish. I personally favor wagering smaller quantities of money over longer durations of time, whereas others are keener on betting bigger lumps of money in few palms/spins. Horses for programs; and it also boils all the way down to how much money you have out there. Fortunately, with the wagering limits at 777, each player will have the ability to wager quantities that fits his/her gaming fashion greatest.

Free slots can be played from anyplace by slot gamers everywhere in the world as a result of the only requirement is that the participant needs to have web access. Indulge in slot video games for fun 24/7 without having to trouble about losing any money. With so much choice now out there for online slots fans, builders similar to Wazdan strive to provide games which have that extra edge. And make no mistake, this is a formidable company, with a large output of extremely-regarded video games having been produced in record time. Koi Princess takes its position as one of many top free slot machines with free spins feature. Even although this isn’t the one component that attracts players to this recreation, it has been able to make a powerful case for inclusion in virtually each top on-line gambling institution.

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Also, you could have ninety days to meet this requirement, or you will forfeit the deposit. After the wagering requirement has been met, the cash is yours to maintain and withdraw as you please. If after you learn this 777 Casino review, you’d wish to see the characteristics of different wagering requirements, head over to our web page oncasino bonuses. The 777 Casino bonus right here is sort of impressive. New players are supplied the prospect to primarily double their opening deposit up to £200.

We provide numerous opportunities for Players to qualify for bonus money which is added to a Player’s Bonus Credit Account. This consists of, for brand spanking new Players, the Introductory Free Spins, Deposit Activated Free Spins and the Deposit Match Bonus. Other bonuses can be found every so often.

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Free slot sport is a sort of the slot sport which a participant can entry to no matter the place he’s on the planet. The participant ought to be linked to the internet and he is not prepared to play using real cash. He is succesful to play 24 hours and there might be no have to pay anything. The free slot games are found on completely different platforms and they are not accessed on the desktop home windows alone. The video games run easily on the Linux computer, Windows, Mac, cell phones with Android or iOS system. The gaming had now reached to Interactive TV and tablets.

To play Vulkan Vegas casino video games smoothly with none hiccups, be sure to are utilizing an up-to-date HTML5 supported browser. No free spins round is on the market, but you’ll come throughout attention-grabbing options. If you wantslot games with extra options or free spins spherical, feel free to take a look at the themed slot video games that Lucky Pants Bingo provides.

Just head to the cashier and select your most popular method, enter the quantity you need and follow the instructions. If you’re a new participant on the location, remember to contemplate the 777 Casino welcome bonus.

Read a evaluation and discover why this new video slot is amazing. Royal Vegas Casino is an online combine of pleasure and action of Las Vegas that works 24/7 inside your personal house with a wonderful assortment of titles to play. Despite being a gorgeous supply, it isn’t shocking to know that they come with a number of strings attached. A wagering requirement is likely one of the largest strings that come together with such offers and offers.

The bonus guess function is one of the three main parts of the game, but it is overshadowed by the two features free of charge spins – Sure Win and Wild Reels. CasinoLand is an excellent place for leisure activities, as players here can play free demos and for money, having fun with a wide variety of video games and numerous latest no deposit on line casino bonuses. Experienced wagerers know that the majority free spins without deposit are provided by new casinos. They simply have to be aggressive in the trade, and without new players they gained’t have such an opportunity. It’s a good way for a participant to get an edge. The wagerer will get the bonus and he can spin any or explicit slots.

Data for the latest four days (January 2-5) has been excluded as it’s incomplete and doesn’t reflect the true number of circumstances. Of the 315 native areas in England, 310 (ninety eight%) have seen an increase in case charges and 5 (2%) have seen a fall. Barking & Dagenham in London continues to have the very best price in England, with 3,216 new instances recorded in the seven days to January 1 – the equivalent of 1,510.5 instances per a hundred,000 individuals. This is up from 976.5 within the seven days to December 25.

Sometimes it is filled mechanically, but more often than not you must apply this code by yourself. You might discover these codes in a special section of the on line casino online you are using, or you could use our portal to seek out these codes. We keep refreshing this part for you to profit essentially the most from the games.

Free spins no deposit, as well as no deposit bonuses, are supplied by most apps. In our scores you can see the best representatives of the world of excitement. Not many players know that they can play without any investments and at the identical time have an actual likelihood to win actual cash. Use the juiciest bonuses collected on our web site and get probably the most out of the sport. Find out which playing institutions in the UK provide 20, 30, 50 and even one hundred spins to your favourite slot. Find an outline of the largest and hottest developers of slot machines with the flexibility to play slots.

If you see that you are winning good rewards, however you still have to fulfill some spins necessities, it might be worthy of depositing a bit more money. That method it is possible for you to to withdraw your winnings. But be sure to are profitable, otherwise there can be no point to withdraw the winnings – you gained’t have them. The provides additionally differ with regard to the placement of the player.

When it comes to slots, relying on the sport in question, pay-traces and minimum number of cash, you’ll have the ability to play with as little as 1p. However, when you feel like going for the big jackpots, you’ll be able to wager as a lot as £1,000 per single spin on chosen fruit machines. When it comes to roulette, the minimal bet might differ from £1 as much as £5, whereas maximums begin at £300 and may reach £2,000 on chosen variants. As for blackjack, the minimum quantities that you could wager go from one quid as much as £10, whereas the maximum amounts begin at ten, but on certain tables they might attain as much as £3,000. Video poker video games have much decrease limits and could be performed for as little 10p and no more than £sixty two.50 per hand.

I have included a further part on this 777 Casino on-line evaluate for extras that I really feel the operator performs well in. This on line casino has a really sound bonus provide, with various profitable promotions, that’s why I have given it 8 out of 10 bonus factors. When it comes to promotions it earned 3 out of 3, as a result of the fact that it includes a vast vary of promotions on many alternative video games.

To obtain these bonuses, players simply create an account with out having to invest their very own cash. Thus, we are able to conclude that play bonuses are, in reality, a deposit. Many popular on-line gamblings in the UK offer their gamers a wide range of promotions. Among them is an unique 10£ free bonus, having acquired which, new players will have the ability to begin their game for real cash and withdraw their winnings, if they’re successful.

Witness them in their beauty on YouTube. The retailer saw shares increase by 556p to 7,468p at the shut of play. The FTSE 100 finished 40.37, or zero.sixty one%, higher at 6,612.25 at the close of play on Tuesday. This is down very barely from 1,531.2 in the seven days to December 31. Data for the latest 4 days (January eight-eleven) has been excluded as it’s incomplete and doesn’t reflect the true number of instances. he figures, for the seven days to January 7, are primarily based on exams carried out in laboratories (pillar one of many Government’s testing programme) and in the wider group .

As 777 doesn’t embrace a large number of software blackjack video games in its library, I would recommend Betway Casino for this. Moreover, some people have identified that 777’s web site would’ve been more informative if it featured a dedicated FAQ section. All in all, 777 is a good alternative in today’s market. If you want to learn more about this market, you must check out my guide to the highest performing casinos within the UK right now, or read some more of my UK casino evaluations.

As you see, Vulkan Vegas Casino is a exceptional gaming web site for anyone who loves playing. With a choice of over 2,000 video games for the taking, we’re positive that you can see something you’ll be able to take pleasure in for hours non-stop. From the word go, we give you a strong matched reward package deal in two tiers worth as much as $500 and, to sweeten the deal, we throw in extra 50 free spins on chosen slots. As you proceed enjoying, you will get many extra perks within xbet casino the lobby! Remember, when you ever get caught whereas doing something on the lobby, a jolly agent is all the time waiting on the other end of the road. If you happen to be a player who enjoys betting on the move, then the Vulkan Vegas Mobile casino will offer you actual-time entry to your favorite on line casino games via your mobile device.

Apart from the list of promotions supplied by the casino, every player will respect the Encore Free Spins feature inside this title. This function provides 10 free spins, which can’t be retriggered. However, they’ve more than sufficient potential to have the ability to give you an enormous win. Besides this feature, the Crowd-Pleaser Bonus and Coin Win feature manage to make up the listing.

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Here, free spins are the primary ingredient and a participant can win massive depending on the type of function that they activate. Valkyrie, Loki, Odin, and Thor are the four completely different bonus components within the sport that present free spins from as low as 10 to 25. Multipliers can also accompany these free spins. The Guns ‘n Roses slot also comes from the home of Net Entertainment. It is predicated on a legendary music band, but the title has developed a cult name for being one of the slots free spins no deposit casinos favour.

They should be met before the funds turn into eligible for withdrawal. European Roulette is one of the most performed variations of the game at 777. You can use PayPal at 777 Casino. In truth, we expect that it is one of the finest PayPal online casinos.

It turns out that it’s attainable. As you obtain a bonus with real money, you’ll be able to win real money. To withdraw them, you should fulfill the conditions for wagering a bonus in a specific casino.

For instance, should you made a deposit of £200, then you’ll obtain £200 in bonus cash. You will then need to put wagers equal to £6,000 earlier than you can withdraw the money.

The free spins no deposit casino UK provides have started appearing within the form of ‘further spins.’ The nomenclature is right down to the prohibition to use ‘free spins’ within the United Kingdom. Rest aside, the additional spins are much like the common free spins they usually carry the same phrases and situations – like wagering necessities.

The audience is different, however inner workings are the identical. Visit our 888casino evaluate if you wish to discover out about that brand. You can play 777 Casino games even whenever you’re away from your own home and you don’t have your laptop computer with you. Namely, you’ll be able to simply open the web site in your mobile browser, log in after which choose from almost 200 cellular-optimised on line casino video games, together with the entire reside casino game catalogue. I also have a full 777 Casino evaluation devoted to the 777 cellular app, if you want to know more about gaming on the go with this operator. The providing additionally showcases this. Payout share – the slot machine has a spread to pay between eighty two as much as 98 of the whole guess of the participant.

Microgaming are behind several successful slot titles, and Throne of Egypt is likely one of the newest to hitch within the long list of titles. The game comes with five reels and 25 paylines set-up. This makes for an fascinating combination. It includes 15 free spins which have the potential to be retriggered.

Dragonfish is not the one software supplier though, as games developed by NetEnt, corresponding to Fisticuffs are additionally included in the recreation library. 777 also provides live on line casino video games, which allow players to take pleasure in an authentic on line casino atmosphere in the consolation of their very own home. The live casino is offered by Evolution Gaming, one of many main suppliers of streamed reside video games. The 777 Casino game choice includes stay roulette, baccarat, blackjack and varied poker games, all in superb quality. If you want to discover out extra in regards to the live on line casino games, you’ll be able to read my exclusive 777 live on line casino review. Slots utterly dominate, as 169 of the games in complete are slots, lots of which characteristic greater than 25 pay-strains. I would like to point out my favourite slot recreation, Spartacus, which is obviously primarily based on the story of the gladiator who led slaves to freedom.

The incontrovertible fact that it is listed on the London Stock Exchange is a further testament to this firm’s gravity. Players from everywhere in the world, excluding residents of USA, Israel and Turkey are allowed to play at this casino. Dragonfish is the primary 777 Casino software program provider and most of the video games that are part of the operator’s distinctive choice of video games have been developed by this firm. I even have already talked about Millionaire Genie. Developed in 2013, this recreation could be found solely at a number of online casinos powered by Dragonfish. In addition to large progressive jackpots, this game additionally options two particular bonus modes- Free Spins Bonus Round and Genie’s Palace Bonus Game.

Roll up is a course of when there is a dramatizing impact when the meter counts up to the quantity which the player has received. The optimal play is the payback proportion which relies on the gambler by the use of optimal technique talent in the talent based mostly machine. Credit meter is found in LED display and it shows how much credit or cash left to play with. On the computer, the credit score meter could also be displayed within the simulated show or in a brand new font. Slot machines are the word from American English and in British English, they’re referred to as Fruit machine while in Scottish English, they’re generally known as puggy. Others call them slot, pokies and videopoker machines.

Or should you love testing luck whereas spinning, just find free spins. Developed by a widely known firm, Dead or Alive offers to have fun. The symbols of the sport match the name of the slot, so it’s much more entertaining to play it. You get free spins to realize a bonus, and extra spins if you’re lucky. A 243 variety of paylines is spectacular enough to start spinning. But that isn’t the only reason to play the game. There are completely different modes, for example, survival and zombie modes.

Withdrawal methods on our web site are just like the deposit ones. While we process all deposits instantly. E-Wallets, on the other hand, often have a maximum withdrawal time of as much as 24 hours while with credit score and debit cards it’ll take a most of 3 days for your payments to be totally processed. Vulkan Vegas Casino has a special programme for those who regularly wager in the home. We award the points utilizing a generous system during which, if you wager $2.00 on any game you get 1 comp point. And when these points accumulate to a redeemable level, you possibly can always trade in for something you discover attention-grabbing such as bonus items and even actual money.

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the chance to win a large prize – any rotation can bring a substantial amount. This great video slot takes you right back to the magic of pharaohs and pyramids as you seek the treasure in the sands and conquer the Throne of Egypt. Free Spin Casino takes buyer security significantly, and so they do every little thing to ensure it is a friendly gambling space. 888 Casino is frequently tested by impartial experts and every time stand up to all the checks. You can unsubscribe at any time by clicking the hyperlink in the footer of our emails.

A scatter also can work to be able to award the free spins to the player. How a lot free spins that player can get, will rely upon which kind of the sport he’s enjoying. Sometime it could additionally award the coin prize but more often than not, the prize will be small however will probably be paid together with the quantity won in the course of the free spin. A scatter symbol is generally a special symbol so a wild symbol just isn’t capable of taking its place. However, there are some games which might be exception.

With 777 Casino, there’s a minimum deposit threshold of £10 that have to be met. Since there are no charges when making a deposit, that is the least the on line casino could ask for. You can even use multiple fee strategies to make your deposit if you wish to, but each one will nonetheless have to for that minimum of £10.

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Although you possibly can win a multiplier reward by pairing a Wild and a jackpot symbol on an lively win line, you cannot win the Mega Jackpot with a Wild symbol. You must spin in 5 Jackpot symbols to do this. If your luck is appearing up somewhat, the Wild symbol will help. Wild symbols can substitute for each symbol, except Free Spins and the progressive Jackpot symbol. Spin in 2 or more of the 7s Heaven mini-sport symbol, to try to levitate your wins to new heights! Enter the mini-recreation and faucet the spin button to get the first reel rolling. With a assured win, the first reel is bound to land on a multiplier value, automatically advancing you to the second reel.

This withdrawal limit is all through the lifetime of your respective account for funds gained from these promotions. While the sport is reside, the Jackpots cannot be terminated. During any spin there’s a chance that the Progressive Mega Jackpot could be triggered by achieving 5 Jackpot symbols on an active win line.

Hand pay is the payout which is made at the change point or to the attendant. The hand pay takes place if an quantity of a payout is exceeding maximum quantity which the operator of the machine accepts. A hand payout can also be nesessary if there is a drawback with the quick pay. Drop box or drop bucket is the container at a base of a machine. This is where the extra coins go when the hopper is full.

This will provide the much needed experience and when you gain a transparent concept concerning the sport, you can wager for real cash with out having to hassle a lot. Free slot video games are playable from any platform, above all let´s point out Windows, Mac, Linux and these can these days completely work from cellular gadgets as well.

To keep the reels spinning routinely, open up the ‘Bet/Lines’ menu and tap ‘Auto Spin’. Before activating Auto Spins, you have to arrange the number of computerized spins, a ‘credit score drops below limit’ and ‘single win exceeds’ limit. The reels will spin mechanically, except any of these set limits are reached, otherwise you faucet the STOP button. Adjust your wager-per-line quantity, by opening up the ‘Bet/Lines’ menu and utilizing the ‘+’ and ‘-‘buttons to set your quantity. With 15 win strains, use the ‘Bet/Lines’ menu to set the amount of energetic win lines you wish to play on. Most purchases from business sellers are protected by the Consumer Contract Regulations 2013 which provide the right to cancel the purchase within 14 days after the day you obtain the item.

Las Vegas Casino Slots 777 Magnet Slot Machine Gaming

Las Vegas Casino Slots 777 Magnet Slot Machine Gaming

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Admiral are committed to ensuring playing is kept free from crime and dysfunction, ensuring gambling is performed in a fair an open means and the safety of children and weak adults. Admiral South Shields can be wheelchair pleasant, offering a completely step-free venue. You can change your session reminder once more later by going to your account web page. Net Loss is the distinction between your losses and your winnings ie should you win £10 however lose £20, your Net Loss is £10. This will reset on the 1st of each month. We need you to verify your account.

I have included an additional section on this 777 Casino online evaluate for extras that I really feel the operator performs nicely in. This on line casino has a really sound bonus offer, with various profitable promotions, that’s why I have given it 8 out of 10 bonus points. When it involves promotions it earned three out of 3, as a result of the fact that it contains a huge vary of promotions on many various games.

So the participant who does not have flash can play it. For most of our avid gamers, that is the most entertaining part of our web site since it brings out the actual casino environment to your own home.

777 is owned by Cassava Enterprises Limited. As the name indicates, this firm is based in Gibraltar. 888 Holdings PLC is listed on the London Stock Exchange and it’s traded as 888 HLDGS. Since 2008, it is one of the constituents of the FTSE 250 Index.

There are three different variants of the 7 symbol. Next comes the gold 7, which pays out 32 cash for matching two symbols, which will increase to 1,000 coins for matching three. And the bottom-paying of the 7s is the purple one, which pays out sixteen cash for matching two, growing to four hundred coins the place three pink 7s are matched throughout a payline. And we had been doubly excited concerning the launch of Hot 777 Deluxe, since it’s an upgrade to the popular Hot 777 slots sport that we are already so acquainted with. The earlier version relied on pretty primitive graphics in a sport that gave a nod to the old fruit machine traditional type of slots gaming.

But if the website presents solely the software program compatible with computer systems and you’ll’t play out of your cellular system, you should use a PC to say the present. The SuperSpins are among the newest entrants to the world of casino freebies and they’re expected to shake up the free casino slots.

777 also has a loyalty scheme underneath which gamers can win loyalty factors which may later be transformed into real money. The welcome bundle of up to £200 in addition to the alternative free play offer of as much as £1,500 is greater than enough for this casino to earn an additional point. Compared to most different operators, 777 is above average in terms of bonuses. Read extra in regards to the available rewards in my detailed evaluation of the bonuses and perks.

The protection of minors is guaranteed and no individual under than age of 18 is allowed to play at 777. I already mentioned that the company is headquartered in Gibraltar.

A scatter also can work so as to award the free spins to the participant. How a lot free spins that player can get, will depend upon which kind of the sport he is enjoying. Sometime it could possibly also award the coin prize but more often than not, the prize might be small however will probably be paid along with the quantity received during the free spin. A scatter image is normally a particular symbol so a wild image isn’t able to taking its place. However, there are some video games that are exception.

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Professor Whitty stated that due to the spike in people being admitted to hospital there will ‘inevitably’ be a rise within the variety of coronavirus deaths later this month. In different developments, Mr Johnson announced that the Government can be ‘bringing in measures to ensure that we check people coming into this nation and prevent the virus from being readmitted’. But questions have been raised over the roll-out, with a pharmacy chief questioning why the NHS is ‘scrabbling round’ for vaccinators when his business was offering to help. England’s chief medical officer Professor Chris Whitty said individuals must take the ‘stay at residence’ guidelines critically as he warned that the nation confronted a ‘really serious emergency’.

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Ni transición ni nacional

El concepto de nación es discutible en cuanto categoría antropológica, pero su existencia en el mundo actual, con España como uno de los más antiguos ejemplos –una de las cinco naciones fundadoras de la Cristiandad, junto a Alemania, Inglaterra, Francia e Italia–, es un hecho incontrovertible. De igual forma, se pueden escribir varios tratados sobre la democracia desde los más diversos puntos de vista y discutir sobre sus esencias, características y requisitos, sin que ello habilite para negar su vigencia como mecanismo de vertebración política.

Como explica Julián Marías en La estructura social, naciones como España han sido las unidades de convivencia durante toda la época moderna, mientras que las aspiraciones nacionalistas de regionalismos periféricos como el catalán son construcciones sociopolíticas recientes elaboradas ex novo por una élite gobernante, fundamentalmente para alcanzar el poder y mantenerse en él. Los actuales nacionalistas catalanes reconocen implícitamente el carácter ficticio de su proyecto (Marías lo llama "insuficiente") con esta conjura anticonstitucional que andan ahora organizando disfrazada de transición. Han estado más de treinta años llevando a cabo su labor de "construcción nacional", prueba evidente de que no existía tal nación, y una vez culminada la obra –fundamentalmente a base de negar a España, la nación a la que pertenecen– se disponen a realizar una asonada jurídico-política utilizando todos los medios ilegales a su alcance.

La solvencia de los protagonistas de la secesión tenía forzosamente que estar a la bajura del despropósito, con Mas y Junqueras como referentes intelectuales y ejecutores del proceso político más ruinoso organizado en Europa desde la Guerra de los Balcanes; una tarea que además tienen que acelerar para ocultar la corrupción galopante de su clase dirigente y preservar a ésta de desagradables encontronazos con la justicia todavía española. Lo más sorprendente es que este camino seguro al desastre se inaugura formalmente con el aplauso del respetable, convencido, entre otros disparates, de que los que le roban no son los dirigentes que manejan fortunas injustificadas en paraísos fiscales, sino el resto de los españoles, a los que deben abandonar cuanto antes mejor. En fin, cosas que ocurren en un sitio donde una película muda tiene todas las papeletas para ser elegida el mejor largometraje del año en lengua vernácula. 

El denostado error empresarial también existe

Cada vez que se organizan jornadas de emprendimiento con la idea, real o ficticia, de fomentar el surgimiento de empresarios, estimular la iniciativa empresarial, etc., los organizadores suelen exhibir como en un mostrador un rosario de casos exitosos, e invitan a empresarios que sí lo supieron hacer, nos cuentan cómo desarrollar una idea, cómo emplear los recursos de la mejor manera posible, cómo acertar.

Verdaderamente, resultaría muy extraño organizar un seminario o un congreso en el que los empresarios nos contaran sus fracasos, en qué metieron la pata, las circunstancias que les llevaron a tomar decisiones equivocadas. Y, sin embargo, los errores tienen un valor enorme en la toma de decisiones, también en las empresariales.

Para una persona que se dedica a rastrear en las teorías, modelos e ideas económicas ortodoxas y heterodoxas, también las que no han servido, aparentemente, para nada, no tiene nada de particular. Por supuesto, cuando se trata de transmitir a los alumnos qué justifica la existencia de una asignatura como Historia del Pensamiento Económico es vital dejar claro que los intentos por explicar el comportamiento de los agentes económicos, de las relaciones entre las variables económicas, la metodología adecuada para la ciencia económica, son todos importantes, también los intentos fallidos. Y, precisamente, esos intentos son los que deben ser desmenuzados para evitar que se conviertan en mito, como sucede con la teoría keynesiana. De ahí la importancia de libros como Los errores de la vieja economía de Juan Ramón Rallo, director del Instituto Juan de Mariana.

En una época como la que vivimos, en la que la desconfianza en el futuro y el desaliento se van instalando en nuestros hogares, en las empresas y en la vida cotidiana, hay que desmentir que el error y el fracaso son evitables. Al revés, se trata de integrar el error como parte de la teoría económica. Y eso es una de las diferencias de la Escuela Austriaca respecto a otras corrientes de pensamiento económico.

La lectura del artículo de Juan Carlos Cachanosky, "Las decisiones empresariales y las predicciones en economía", publicado en la revista LIBERTAS en el año 2000, deja las cosas bien claras. Efectivamente, la idea de partida es que la sociedad es un sistema hipercomplejo en el que las predicciones no tienen el mismo significado ni fiabilidad que las predicciones que se realizan en las ciencias naturales. Y la economía es una ciencia social que estudia la acción humana. No solamente es imposible predecir el comportamiento humano individual, cuando se trata de un grupo de personas, la cosa se complica, y si se trata de un mercado amplio y anónimo, aún más. El conocimiento es la clave. Como Hayek nos enseñó: el problema económico de la sociedad (…) es un problema de la utilización de un conocimiento que no le está dado a nadie en su totalidad.

Por ese motivo, para que las previsiones empresariales respecto del valor de la empresa y el coste medio del capital sean las más rigurosas y el decisor maneje los datos más adecuados, es necesario que no haya una mano arbitraria que manipule las variables. Lo que no sucede en las economías intervenidas, como la nuestra. Y, además, incluso si la decisión es la correcta, el resultado, como señala Cachanosky, puede no ser exitoso.

Hay que aprender a moverse en un entorno de incertidumbre en el que se pueda aprender de las lecciones positivas y negativas. Cuando las autoridades monetarias europeas hacen test de stress de los bancos, perfilan varios escenarios. Esta estrategia pone de manifiesto que por más datos y modelos econométricos que tengamos, no se pueden poner puertas al campo. Estas herramientas son útiles si nos atenemos estrictamente a qué nos indican y si tenemos siempre muy en cuenta el componente subjetivo que hay detrás.

Pero, desgraciadamente, en nuestra sociedad nos aferramos al dedo y no miramos la luna. Es decir, mitificamos el instrumento, lo hacemos bello, estético, sofisticado, y olvidamos qué hace ahí, para qué debería servirnos. Y, lo que es peor, lo manipulamos por intereses políticos nefandos, para que sustente una decisión tomada a priori. Así, nuestros gobiernos elegidos democráticamente estimulan determinadas actividades, determinados negocios, sectores, que supuestamente van a llevar a nuestro país a la cima de Europa, nos van a hacer competitivos y exitosos y nos lo demuestran con escenarios perfectamente diseñados, contra factuales, proyecciones a futuro, y nosotros les aplaudimos. Cuando lo cierto es que no hay conocimiento superior al del mercado libre. Se trata del famoso orden espontáneo del que tanto hablamos y que tanto miedo nos da. Si dejamos que sea el conocimiento que el propio sistema social hipercomplejo el que guíe cuáles son las inversiones rentables, los negocios en los que hay oportunidades de ganancias, entonces los empresarios podrán ejercer su función descubridora de esos mercados aún no desvelados.

Probablemente, al leer estas líneas, aparezca en la mente de todos la idea de la regulación, la protección frente al abuso, etc. Efectivamente, son necesarias leyes. Pero a lo que hemos llegado es a que nos dirija el miedo. Por miedo a no tener esa protección, hemos derivado en una esclerotización de lo que fue un mercado y hoy es un híbrido planificado. Y los abusos, no solamente no se evitan, sino que han aumentado y se han estatalizado.

Volvamos a leer a Hayek.

Mimemos el beneficio empresarial

Después de más de un mes, retomo mi actividad normal en este rincón de VozPópuli. Mi primera reflexión es que han pasado muchas cosas desde entonces y, sin embargo, no ha cambiado nada. La mentalidad es la misma, tanto por parte de los ciudadanos como por parte de los encargados del chiringuito. La situación, también. Eso sí. En medio de mi silencio han pasado las fiestas navideñas. El confeti del día siguiente es sórdido. Y las felicitaciones de año nuevo con sonrisa de “aquí no pasa nada” no es que se vayan a chocar con la realidad, es que ya chocan con ella desde hace tiempo. Aunque no lo notemos.

La ilusión de la calma

Porque uno de los fenómenos que se observa al alejarse del ruedo y prestar atención a lo que se dice en la calle es que, a pesar de las huelgas, los parados y las previsiones, la gente tiene la sensación de que tan mal, tan mal, no estamos y que tampoco vamos a estar mucho peor. Esta idea es alimentada por los responsables del gobierno quienes, una vez conseguido el objetivo de driblar el rescate, esperan seguir alargando lo que tenga que venir. Y “lo que tenga que venir” nadie sabe muy bien qué es.

La explicación es que no hay más datos negativos. No han aumentado las malas noticias y eso alimenta la esperanza de que, por lo menos, no seguimos a tumba abierta. Pero se nos olvida que esta aparente calma no indica que estemos bien. No se han solucionado los problemas que teníamos: seguimos teniendo una deuda inabordable, de la que apenas podemos pagar los intereses; seguimos siendo los campeones del paro; seguimos teniendo una actividad empresarial raquítica… Pero, como no vamos a peor, no vamos mal. Y esa es la falacia, no vamos peor aunque seguimos yendo mal.

Hay que mimar los beneficios empresariales

Uno de los puntos negros que señalan analistas como Daniel Lacalle es el deterioro de los beneficios empresariales. Y sé que suena fatal decirlo porque hay gente comiendo en centros asistenciales y familias al completo en el paro, pero los beneficios empresariales bajos nos perjudican a todos. El que la relación entre los beneficios empresariales y el coste de capital se deteriore choca con la visión generalizada transmitida a la gente de la calle por la evolución de la prima de riesgo y el índice bursátil. ¿No era que una prima de riesgo más relajada significaba que los mercados nos consideran más capaces de devolver las deudas? ¿No significa la trayectoria de la Bolsa que no estamos tan mal? ¿No están por los suelos los tipos de interés? ¿No debería verse estimulada la inversión?

Pues no. O no del todo. Resulta que lo que vemos es el resultado del más o menos hábil manejo de las autoridades de los tipos de interés y las políticas monetarias “escapistas” que consisten en monetizar la deuda, sea a las claras, o vía préstamos blandos del BCE. La intervención de los gobiernos en este sentido no hace desaparecer el riesgo crediticio como por arte de magia, los datos nos dicen que los préstamos morosos siguen subiendo, los beneficios están estancados o empeoran porque a pesar de los tejemanejes políticos la realidad se impone y la maquinaria no tira. Es decir, no se puede sacar de donde no hay. Y da lo mismo que le den una manita de pintura, que bajen tipos, que inyecten por donde sea… no da para más.

La mirada de la gente

Mientras todo esto sucede, en otro lugar de la galaxia, en la calle concretamente, se alimenta la ira contra todo lo que signifique beneficio, empresario, capital, sin saber que los iPads, las cenas de Navidad, los Roscones, los perfumes, las rebajas de Zara, las doce uvas sin pepitas, son fruto de eso… de empresarios que buscaban beneficios e invertían su capital para lograr su propio interés. Porque buscar el propio interés no implica desear o buscar el mal para los demás. Tener más no implica que los demás tengan menos. No hay una cantidad fija de bienes, de riqueza o de dinero. Así que desahogar la frustración del poder adquisitivo perdido es natural, sano y estaría muy bien si se enfocase correctamente hacia quienes tienen responsabilidad en ello.

Por ejemplo, esos gobernantes que manipulan los tipos de interés, las autoridades que aprovechan los créditos blandos del BCE para monetizar deuda, quienes siguen mareando la perdiz rescatando bancos que deberían haber cerrado hace tiempo. Lo cierto es que esos empresarios grandes o pequeños que siguen dando la batalla para mantener la empresa viva, son quienes van a generar puestos de trabajo para nuestros seis millones de parados. Y si no tienen el apoyo de todos, es decir, si no deja de ser una lacra decir “soy empresario” en este país, si no se siento uno impelido a disculparse porque su empresa va bien, o porque obtiene beneficios, o porque está invirtiendo, o porque su empresa se expande… no vamos a conseguir nada. Si cada vez que se nombra la palabra “beneficio empresarial” alguien grita “¡que pague más impuestos que para eso tiene más!”, no vamos a ninguna parte.

El Estado, como decía Juan Ramón Rallo, no son los Reyes Magos que traen a cada uno lo que sueña sin hacer nada. Tú pagas. Por eso, cuando el despilfarro es tan patético que aburre, hay que defender al que sí se gasta su dinero en desarrollar una idea, ponerla en práctica y sacar un beneficio.

La Escuela de Salamanca reloaded

Escribo este comentario con el año recién acabado, y me hace ilusión comenzar 2013 con una referencia a la Escuela de Salamanca (tomando prestado uno de los títulos de la serie Matrix). Ya tuve ocasión de explicarles que este mismo año hemos celebrado algunos centenarios: como el de Diego de Covarrubias, Fernando Vázquez de Menchaca o la publicación del Governador Christiano de Juan Márquez, circunstancias que me han permitido recordar el pensamiento de aquellos doctores contemporáneos al inspirador de nuestro Instituto Juan de Mariana.

Pues bien, añado como colofón lo siguiente: hace tres o cuatro semanas asistí a un interesante Seminario del Capítulo de Historia de AEDOS en torno a la Escuela de Salamanca, del que quería hablarles. Giraba en torno a tres Mesas Redondas para analizar la "actualidad de su pensamiento", como señalaban sus organizadores Fernando Fernández y José Andrés Gallego: "Durante muchos años, se valoró casi exclusivamente en función de sus aportaciones al futuro derecho internacional (hasta el siglo XIX, "derecho de gentes") y, en el último medio siglo, se ha llegado a concluir que, simplemente, no habían sido leídos de forma exhaustiva y se habían pasado por alto otros aspectos capitales: la recuperación de conceptos básicos de la metafísica tomista, el pensamiento económico y político, la aplicación de la antropología y de la filosofía del derecho al principio de ‘la responsabilidad de proteger’ como un aspecto de la razón natural compartida por todas las naciones…".

Así, una primera reflexión abordó el marco histórico y el ámbito conceptual: desde la clasificación de sus autores y descripción del pensamiento (Juan Belda) hasta una interesante referencia a la crisis económica actual (Francisco Gómez Camacho). Por medio, Idoya Zorroza explicó el desarrollo y objetivos del proyecto editorial sobre Pensamiento Clásico Español de la Universidad de Navarra, que incorpora bastantes obras de los maestros salmantinos.

La segunda Mesa Redonda trató de los desarrollos filosóficos, teológicos y jurídicos, a partir de una exposición sobre Antropología y Ley Natural (Francisco Carpintero). Se trataba de comparar el ideárium de Tomás de Aquino con el de la Segunda Escolástica, particularmente a partir de los jesuitas Gabriel Vázquez y Francisco Suárez. Del mismo modo se planteó una de las tensiones doctrinales en la Alta Edad Media (Mario Šilar), entre canonistas y teólogos: en ambos casos, se puede ver el conflicto como una manera de avanzar en la especulación racional.

El contrapunto a una perspectiva demasiado intelectual vino desde la experiencia americana de los dominicos (Miguel Ángel Medina): cómo las cartas llegadas del Nuevo Mundo pudieron ser el detonante de las Relecciones de Vitoria en torno al poder civil y al estatuto de los indios. También se destacaron las tempranas críticas a la esclavitud (José Carlos Martín de la Hoz). Lo que nos refirió al problema de la libertad religiosa (Gerardo del Pozo) que, siendo planteada por nuestros Doctores, debió esperar al concilio Vaticano II para su comprensión moderna.

Ya en horario vespertino se abordó una tercera cuestión: los desarrollos económicos y políticos. José Antonio García Durán abrió la jornada con una referencia a la banca medieval en Gonzalo de Berceo, explicando que la liberalidad y la magnanimidad permiten conformar el horizonte temporal a largo plazo. También la seguridad jurídica, la estabilidad de las leyes y el cumplimiento de los acuerdos (Victoriano Martín) facilitan el desarrollo económico: no es un disparate encontrar en Luis de Molina y otros escolásticos un antecedente de la Nueva Economía Institucional (defensora de un Estado moderado junto al respeto de los derechos de propiedad).

Este punto abrió un interesante debate en torno a los límites de la propiedad privada (qué sea la "extrema necesidad"), la obligación moral de la limosna y la definición del bien común. Francisco Carpintero precisaría al respecto los términos latinos de "propietas" (referida más bien a una cualidad) frente a "possessio" (el uso y el dominio efectivo de los bienes).

La sesión terminaba con una consideración (Francisco Baciero) sobre el paso de la filosofía política salmantina al pensamiento moderno: propone desmitificar los Tratados sobre el Gobierno Civil de Locke, argumentando un fundamento escolástico nunca reconocido por el escritor inglés. Pero hoy conocemos bien cómo John Locke manejó una edición inglesa del Tratado sobre la Ley de Francisco Suárez, seguramente en sus debates con Filmer. Asimismo, hay que tener en cuenta las citas de Suárez y Bellarmino en el Patriarca de Robert Filmer: curiosamente, criticando la postura antiabsolutista de los autores jesuitas.

En fin, además de un agradable encuentro de muchos académicos interesados en la segunda escolástica hispana, este Seminario de AEDOS nos sigue animando a profundizar en el pensamiento salmantino como una de las más consistentes raíces de la Modernidad.

2012, ¿el año de los recortes?

Dicen que el primer paso para superar un problema es reconocerlo. Aunque la afirmación puede parecer cargada de sentido común, realmente es muy difícil de asumir. En política, casi siempre, los problemas son los que crearon los demás, pero, por razones de lo más variado, cuando se accede al poder, los que eran evidentes en la oposición se asimilan o asumen. La llegada al poder de Mariano Rajoy, hace algo más de un año, llenaba de esperanza a millones de votantes y a algunos otros que, pese a no haberle votado, esperaban que, al menos en lo económico, lo hiciera mucho mejor que su antecesor, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero.

Cuando José María Aznar llegó al poder, tomó una serie de decisiones económicas que transformaron el erial económico que había heredado de Felipe González en una economía más emprendedora y abierta, y lo hizo en relativamente poco tiempo. Al menos eso es lo que pensó mucha gente que le terminó concediendo una mayoría absoluta en la siguiente legislatura. Ese aparente acierto del pasado era posiblemente la base de la esperanza de los votantes de Rajoy: que el PP, y la derecha en general, sabe más de creación de riqueza que la izquierda, que siempre se ha centrado en el reparto de la existente. Un año después, una buena parte de esos votantes está arrepentida.

A Rajoy y a varios gobiernos regionales del PP se les acusa de recortar, de atacar el Estado de Bienestar, de atentar contra los derechos de los trabajadores públicos y de los beneficiarios de sus servicios. El término “derecho” ha surgido y surge con facilidad en las reivindicaciones de afectados, sindicatos y movimientos de la extrema izquierda que, bajo el paraguas de las revueltas y algaradas callejeras, se han hecho fuertes en las portadas de ciertos medios de comunicación y, con un impacto más limitado de lo esperado, en la calle.

Sin embargo, el año de Rajoy es posiblemente el que muchas fuerzas de la izquierda habrían firmado con los ojos cerrados si el que hubiera tomado las decisiones fuera un líder de su partido. Rajoy ha subido 27 impuestos durante el último año. Por poner tres ejemplos significativos, ha superado el límite máximo de IRPF que proponía la propia IU, ha incrementado el IVA y ha aumentado el de sociedades, impuesto muy relacionado con la maltratada actividad empresarial.

Su reforma del mal llamado mercado laboral no avanza apenas hacia una verdadera liberalización, dejando a trabajadores y empresarios atrapados en un maremágnum regulatorio que no favorece a ninguno.

La Administración sigue siendo la misma. Los tres niveles (central, autonómico y local) siguen contando con servicios duplicados, prosiguen los conflictos entre ellos, avivados por las luchas partidistas, ideológicas y, en los últimos años, con un nacionalismo desbocado, hambriento de recursos que no puede conseguir si no es a base de coacción y amenazas. El dinero que toman de los contribuyentes se gasta en asuntos que les son ajenos, despilfarrando, alimentando corruptelas que a nadie benefician, salvo a los propios corruptos. El gasto estatal se mantiene en niveles muy elevados y ni Rajoy ni las entidades locales o autonómicas parecen haber tomado medidas para que disminuya de manera significativa, ni que la deuda y el déficit retornen a cifras, al menos, asumibles por los sufridos contribuyentes. La burbuja estatal sigue existiendo y corre peligro de explotar, con efectos impredecibles.

Y mientras, el Estado clientelar, el que depende del presupuesto público, sigue incrementándose. Cada vez son más los que dependen de las administraciones estatales, no sólo los funcionarios o trabajadores públicos, incluyendo en este colectivo a los políticos electos que favorecen, en muchos casos, políticas irresponsables, sino también los que reciben (recibimos) los servicios públicos (sanidad, educación, transporte público, pensiones, prestaciones por desempleo, limpieza y mantenimiento viario, etc.) y los que perciben subvenciones o ayudas financieras de distinta naturaleza por las actividades económicas que realizan, pese a que, sin tales ayudas, sus actividades no fueran, en muchos casos, rentables: agricultores, productores de energías renovables, artistas, empresarios ligados a sectores como el inmobiliario o el desarrollo de infraestructuras urbanas, viarias o de transporte, entre otros.  

Y la situación es poco halagüeña si tenemos en cuenta que el propio Estado se ha encargado de acabar con su competencia, con las instituciones que la sociedad civil ha ido creando. Ahora que lo estatal no tiene recursos para tanto compromiso, no tenemos alternativas que nos ayuden, con el agravante de que, en el caso de España, el espíritu empresarial está muy mal considerado, a la vez que la propia naturaleza administrativa y regulatoria lo convierte en una actividad desagradable.

Cada vez son más los que pasan del colectivo netamente contribuyente al colectivo asistido, y a ello hay que añadir una pirámide demográfica cada vez más invertida, con un paro juvenil que supera el 50%. El Estado no cuenta con suficientes ingresos para mantener esta maquinaria ineficiente y cada vez más dañina, pues cada vez somos menos los que podemos aportar dinero a las arcas de Hacienda y cada vez son mayores sus necesidades.

Y habría que recordar a los que se benefician del sistema, a los que viven del presupuesto, que el coste de sus sueldos y gabelas, sus ayudas, servicios y derechos procede en su integridad de los impuestos que pagan ciudadanos y empresas y que, si éstas son cada vez menos y cada vez hay más personas a las que asistir, menos se podrá sostener tal gasto; que las corruptelas podrán ser significativas e importantes, pero que, en ningún caso, cubren el déficit y la deuda, una deuda que se come cada año parte de ese presupuesto.

Habría que recordar a huelguistas y manifestantes del “qué hay de lo mío”, que asolan la ciudad de Madrid con sus reivindicaciones que la situación es inviable y que, les guste o no, les parezca justo o injusto, la manera en que han vivido hasta la fecha resulta insostenible y que los recortes que se proponen no son, ni de lejos, los que deberían ser; que, pese a que nos han enseñado durante décadas lo contrario, el ciudadano debe buscar satisfacer sus necesidades con lo que ingresa y que, si con ello no es suficiente, debería dar prioridad a unos gastos frente a otros, o bien centrar sus esfuerzos en encontrar más fuentes de ingresos, en vez de esperar a que alguien le solucione la vida con el dinero de otros y que sus gritos acobarden o alimenten a algún político populista.

Por último, no puedo dejar de pensar que Rajoy ha querido llegar al poder para gestionar que todo siga como está, que nada cambie de manera profunda y que, cuando la economía mejore en el exterior, reavive a la española y, de esta manera, convertirse en el salvador del Estado de Bienestar. Rajoy no quiere ver los problemas del sistema y propone malas soluciones a corto plazo, soluciones que no pretenden hacer demasiado ruido. 2012 no ha sido el año de los recortes, ha sido el año de la subida de impuestos, ha sido el año en que todo ha seguido más o menos como lo dejó el PSOE, ha sido un año más con un gasto público disparatado, ha sido el año de los manifestantes que quieren que lo poco que se recorte no les afecte a ellos sino a otros, ha sido el año en que no se ha desregulado nada importante, sino que se ha añadido un millón de páginas de nuevas normativas.

Y pese a todo, el camino es claro y está ahí para quien lo quiera ver y se atreva a desmantelar esta ineficiencia, aunque le costara el poder. Se debe hacer exactamente lo contrario de lo que se ha hecho durante los últimos ocho años. Es cuestión de dar esos pasos y ver qué pasa. El futuro no está escrito.

Los miserables rurales (II)

La reforma agraria ha sido interpretada por políticos e historiadores como uno de los elementos indispensables para modernizar economías rurales, donde la propiedad de la tierra se distribuía entre pocas manos, y los campesinos apenas alcanzaban con su trabajo el nivel de subsistencia. Sucedió en España, Rusia, Japón, Sudamérica, Zimbabwe, y otros muchos países caracterizados todos por una desigual, tardía o insuficiente industrialización de su economía. Pero en vez de ver este último elemento como el factor fundamental, y a partir de él, hallar las barreras y fuentes de descoordinación social, el pensamiento dominante ha entendido que la causa, o al menos una de las causas principales, radicaba en la singular distribución de la tierra y la eficiencia productiva del campo. Latifundistas, iglesia, manos muertas o nobleza, como sinónimo de atraso y explotación de millones de individuos. El Estado dio con a quién expoliar, y en base a qué justificación o teoría hacerlo, siempre en beneficio de los más débiles y oprimidos, merced de amedrentar a los más poderosos… Esta idea, que como eslogan y propósito encontró adeptos y no pocos pensadores capaces de desarrollarla con rigor y sobrada argumentación, responde a una falsedad derivada de un análisis pobre e incompleto de cuáles son los fenómenos que impiden a las naciones desarrollarse.

Lo cierto es que la debilidad industrial de una nación, ligada a que su agro permanezca atrasado, no deriva exclusivamente de la distribución de la propiedad de la tierra. Son las ciudades y no el campo donde debemos poner nuestra atención.

Las monarquías se financiaban con cargo a la hacienda y derechos del Rey. Siendo insuficiente esta fuente de ingresos, se avanzó extendiendo las contribuciones procedentes de las ciudades. Iglesia y nobleza no tributaban, o no lo hacían de modo directo o significativo, razón que empujó al Estado moderno a poner su punto de mira en las ciudades, que acabaron siendo las únicas convocadas cuando se demandaban nuevos y mayores tributos. Al mismo tiempo, las ciudades, que empezaron a rivalizar con el campo como principal fuente de riqueza, y que eran ya centros de innovación y conocimiento, se convirtieron además en las grandes perjudicadas por las políticas de gasto desaforado emprendidas por sus reyes. Inflación y otros impuestos unidos a regulación, aranceles, barreras comerciales. En definitiva, una política mercantilista que asfixiaba, limitaba e incluso impedía crecer a las ciudades.

Para habitar un núcleo urbano de tamaño considerable, resulta condición indispensable tener oficio, y beneficio, distinto al estrictamente rural. Sin que estas ocupaciones demanden nuevos trabajadores, resulta obvio que el campo siga siendo el lugar donde más individuos habiten. Si las ciudades no atraen a los campesinos, difícilmente saldrán beneficiados aquellos que sí decidan permanecer en sus tradicionales ocupaciones agrarias. Los salarios del campo crecerán en la medida que la mano de obra se desplace a las ciudades, y quien emplee a su cargo jornaleros y campesinos no tenga más opción que subirles el salario para retenerlos a su lado. Eso, o invertir en bienes de capital que sustituyan a los antiguos labradores… A partir de aquí la tendencia es a que las ciudades crezcan, y con ellas la industria, incluida aquella dedicada a mejorar la producción agraria, la distribución de alimentos, su conservación y mejora de calidad. Tales inversiones no siempre resultan adecuadamente incorporadas, o quedan fuera del alcance de antiguos propietarios que se ven superados por los tiempos. Es ahí cuando comenzará una desamortización espontánea, con ventas, reagrupaciones o creación de organizaciones productivas mucho más eficientes. El resultado no ha de ser necesariamente la extensión del minifundio, sino en general, el desarrollo del medio rural en términos de eficiencia y mejora de las condiciones de vida de los que en él trabajen.

Todo ello nos lleva a la siguiente conclusión: la reforma no ha de estar orientada al campo (aunque existan situaciones que sí demanden cierto impulso), sino que debe centrarse en liberalizar el comercio urbano, bajar impuestos y no manipular instituciones como el dinero o el Derecho. De ese modo, no hará falta que se emprenda una revisión completa de la propiedad de la tierra, mediante desamortizaciones expropiatorias o la experimentación colectivista.

La experiencia nos demuestra que éste ha sido el discurrir en las naciones que más pronto han logrado alcanzar altas cotas de industrialización, prosperidad y complejidad social. De hecho, justamente en esas naciones, ha sido mucho más evidente la reacción de los antiguos privilegiados y terratenientes, enfrentados a los rigores de un mercado que les privaba de manera espontánea de esa mano de obra barata que antes prestaba sus servicios a cambio de salarios de miseria. Tuvieron que afrontar también ellos el empuje de la libertad. Trataron entonces de dramatizar la imagen del obrero, cuya vida se tachaba de miserable en comparación con el campesino feliz, de corte medieval, nutrido y con tiempo libre. Mentiras que demuestran que la mejor reforma agraria ha sido la que surge del empuje urbano y el capitalismo.

@JCHerran


Este comentario parte de varias reflexiones del autor sobre los miserables (ver I).

Carta para los Reyes Magos

QUERIDOS Reyes Magos: este año he sido muy bueno y por ello me gustaría que me hicieran un regalo. Para que entiendan lo que les voy a pedir, primero necesito explicarles las circunstancias que atraviesan las Islas en las que vivo. Si por algo se ha caracterizado Canarias es por su capacidad para la creación de riqueza, gracias principalmente a su localización estratégica, su potencial turístico y sus gentes. Sin embargo, en la actualidad existe un 33,63% de paro, es decir, 378.200 personas que no encuentran trabajo ni lo van a encontrar por culpa de nuestro presidente, Paulino. Una persona, queridas Majestades, que está empeñada en seguir dificultando con infinitas trabas a los que quieren emprender negocios que generen nuevos puestos de trabajo y en asustarles para que no abran ninguna nueva empresa con ideas, que serían tachadas como xenófobas en otros lugares, como que «el empleo debe ser para la gente de aquí».

Por si esto fuera poco, ha llevado el gasto público de Canarias en 2011 hasta los 7.014 millones de euros, un 56,15% más que en el 2003. Sin embargo, nuestro presidente, lejos de aliviar nuestros bolsillos y sacar de la quiebra a las administraciones públicas canarias, se ha empeñado en lanzarnos al abismo con nuevas subidas de impuestos, como la del IGIC, o queriendo hacer más insostenible aún nuestra economía, al pretender aumentar las deficitarias energías renovables, que han dejado en el conjunto del país la brutal deuda de más de 24.000 millones de euros, frente a facilitar las prospecciones de petróleo a 60 kilómetros de nuestras costas, que sin lugar a dudas ayudarían a mejorar la mermada economía canaria.

Por si todo esto fuera poco, en el «blog» presidencial, el señor Rivero ha llegado a defender que el problema de Canarias es el número de personas que vivimos aquí con frases como «defender, como defiendo, la articulación de mecanismos para regular el crecimiento poblacional es un ejercicio de responsabilidad tan razonable como inaplazable». De verdad, sus Majestades, estoy muy asustado, porque da la sensación de que lo que este señor pretende es echarnos de nuestra tierra, prohibir que vengan más personas a Canarias para generar riqueza e incluso prohibirnos tener más hijos, como hacen en algunas dictaduras.

Por todo ello, les pido que me traigan un nuevo presidente. Me gustaría uno radicalmente distinto al que tenemos. Alguien que quiera bajar los impuestos y no subirlos, que esté decidido a pinchar la burbuja del gasto público, que no gaste más de lo que ingrese, que facilite la creación de nuevas empresas y riqueza, eliminando el sinfín de trabas que tenemos, y, por supuesto, alguien que defienda la libertad para establecerse en Canarias.

Extorsionadores extorsionados

Definamos extorsión… Según la RAE: "Usurpar, arrebatar algo a alguien utilizando la amenaza respaldada por la violencia". Más claro, agua. Una vez establecido, sin lugar a dudas, el significado de la palabreja, podemos ponerle un adjetivo que la suavice, que tranquilice nuestra conciencia. Podemos calificarla de democrática, social, solidaria… O, mejor aún, podemos quitar el término extorsión y hablar de política redistributiva, políticas sociales, justicia social, socialismo, Estado del Bienestar. Podemos adornarla, camuflarla u omitirla… Pero estamos hablando de simple y llanamente extorsión.

Una extorsión que la gran mayoría de la población acepta, valora e intenta practicar deliberadamente, votando a unos políticos que les prometen ser su "brazo extorsionador" a cambio de un salario público, coche oficial y otras prebendas… Porque lo que es indudable es que la extorsión tiene ventajas para quien la practica, pues gracias a ella se puede disponer de los bienes, del trabajo y del dinero de los demás para propios y personales fines.

Y si encima , en vez de tener que hacerlo personalmente, podemos recurrir a la mencionada extorsión delegada, pues mejor, mucho mejor…, tanto desde el punto de vista de la propia integridad física, pues no es lo mismo amenazar en plan Soprano al tendero de la esquina para que te entregue un sobre con parte de recaudación del mes a que lo haga por nosotros un inspector de hacienda, como desde el punto de vista moral, pues al apoyarnos en la política, tenemos la "justificación democrática", es decir, nos decimos a nosotros mismos que la extorsión del prójimo, cuando es ejercida en nombre de un 51% del censo electoral, se convierte en un derecho…

Y por supuesto, siempre nos queda la "justificación solidaria" que nos hace aceptar la extorsión, siempre que se ejerza sobre "los ricos" y sea para unos "buenos fines", que, curiosamente, suele coincidir al 100% con los intereses de quienes la defienden.

Así, la sociedad española se ha convertido en una sociedad "extorsionadora", una sociedad que no aspira a vivir de su trabajo y de la riqueza que este pueda crear, sino de la riqueza que nuestros políticos, cumpliendo sus promesas electorales, sean capaces de quitar al prójimo y gastársela en nuestras necesidades, deseos e ilusiones…

Por ello, quizá haya cierta ironía cósmica, "kármica", en la dramática situación actual… Una España que creyó ciegamente en la política y los políticos, en el Estado omnipotente y paternalista, en el atajo de las políticas" redistributivas", que nunca creyó en la libertad, la competencia y la responsabilidad individual, descubre, perpleja y desorientada, que está siendo extorsionada por aquellos en quienes, confiada y alegremente, delegó.

Es lo que pasa cuando se trata con profesionales del tema, ya saben…